Robert Patannang Borrong
Working as an Indonesian in an Indonesian context I see it as my first responsibility to face the crisis as it is shaped in this country. Therefore I focus first of all on Indonesia. In order to make clear the urgency of a study on ethics in our dealing with environment1 I will shortly display some of the most striking facts.
Economic Growth
According to Radius Prawiro, to promote development, governments of Indonesia generally concentrate on employment, infrastructure, and the production of goods and services. The unfortunate by-products of economic development, however, are exploitation of natural resources, pollution and environmental degradation. In contemporary Indonesia, the most prominent consequences of economic development are air pollution, water pollution from industry and human waste, and solid waste, such as product packaging. Such forms of pollution have become a problem, even in remote rural villages.2 Though Indonesia is now trying to follow a sustainable development paradigm in its new development policy, the pace of development has been so rapid that adverse effects have been unavoidable and excessive. The problems facing Indonesia in its development program are not only pollution but also the problem of exploitation of natural resources, especially forest loss.
Forest loss
Greenpeace has argued that Indonesia has the highest rate of forest loss in the world.3 According to the Global Forest Watch, Indonesia has lost an estimated 72 percent of her original frontier forest. The rate of forest loss is accelerating.
On average, about one million ha per year were cleared in the 1980’s, rising to about 1.7 million ha per year in the first part of 1990’s. Since 1996, deforestation appears to have increased to an average of 2 million ha per year.4 Deforestation in Indonesia is largely the result of a corrupt political and economic system that regards natural resources, especially forests, as a source of revenue to be exploited for political ends and personal gain. Now, Indonesia is facing the problem of illegal logging. Faith Doherty of the Environmental Investigation Agency calls this a case of ‘forest crime’. According to her, timber that is stolen from Indonesia’s forests finds it way on to the international market either directly or through neighboring states, especially Malaysia and Singapore where the timber is successfully laundered and sent on to marketplaces in the United States, Europe, Japan, Taiwan and Mainland China.5
In fact, illegal logging was high on the agenda at the meeting of international donors to Indonesia in January 24, 2003. The Indonesian Minister for Forestry has called on major consuming countries to take urgent action to curb illegal imports of Indonesian wood, claiming that their failure to do so is making them accessories to forest crime.6
These illegal actions are not in accord with the Broad Outlines of State Policy ( the GBHN) policies in the field of forestry, which greatly emphasize the enhancement of environmental-friendly integrated exploitation of forest and which also benefits the local people. The GBHN concerning forestry contains the following statement:
The exploitation of forests must be integrated and enhanced with environmental insight to preserve and maintain the function of land, water, air and climate and to provide the biggest benefits to the people … The conservation of dry land forest, marshland forest and diluted forests and the special characteristics of its nature including its flora and fauna must be continuously enhanced to protect the germ plasma, diversity and safety of living matters and the ecosystem and its elements.7 What is developed here is, however, just a theory or an idea, because in reality the policy of forest exploitation in Indonesia has often paid little attention to the importance of forests and the living beings in them. Instead, economic and material profits are emphasized. In the meantime, damage to forests, especially tropical forests, has a huge influence on the global environment.
Agriculture
With the increase of the population, a larger land area is needed for agriculture, settlement and for other facilities. Problems will thus arise in the provision of fertile land for agriculture, because. on one hand, the development of settlements and other facilities has often taken over agricultural land so that agricultural land has shrunk. If fertile land is converted into settlement areas or used for industry, it is possible that humankind will continuously face food deficiencies in the future. Technology is not able to help multiply the production of agriculture products on limited land without the availability of sufficient energy. In the meantime, the addition of fertilizers can also damage the soil if it is used excessively and continuously.
According to research by Peter Gardiner, agricultural land on the island of Java has been shrinking by 8% per year due to conversion into new settlements as a result of urbanization. 8 As this research was conducted in 1991 data may have changed. On the island of Java, during the 1990s, the development of an industrial area in the region of Cikarang used about two thousand hectares of rich and fertile sawah (wet ricefield) land in West Java. This reality is very much against the Broad Outlines of the State Policy (GBHN), which underlined the need for the rehabilitation of critical land. One of the items in the GBHN concerning the field of agriculture underlines the importance of prioritizing fertile land as agriculture land:
Agricultural development must be supported by the arrangement of land use and land layout so that the utilization of fertile land is prioritized for agricultural purposes. The use, right, ownership and transfer of rights on land must be able to guarantee agricultural activities.9
It is evident that the regulations in effect since the GBHN of 1983 have not been implemented as they should. A lot of fertile agricultural land has been converted for the development of settlement facilities, offices, shops and transportation.
The government of Indonesia opened peat moss land in Kalimantan to replace the fertile sawah land on the island of Java in a project known as the ‘one million hectare peat moss land’ project. However, thus far this project has not succeeded in replacing the fertile agricultural land on the island of Java. If this project does succeed, it will have a new impact on the environment, namely the decrease of natural forests that then will be used for agriculture.
This would certainly mean a reduction in the natural support of the earth’s ecosystem, particularly as the island of Kalimantan has become one of the mainstay reserves of tropical forests in the world. In addition to that, modern agriculture has the characteristics of not being sustainable, because of the intensive use of chemicals, and chemical fertilizers (additional energy) and the practice of monoculture. The use of chemicals and the practice of monoculture have caused soil infertility because of the disappearance of all microorganisms, which are actually needed and always exist in the structure of natural soil.
Damage to agricultural land is caused by many factors, but almost all factors are related to the activities of human beings, personally, or through institutions or through government policies. For instance, the exploitation of forests has very much influenced the quality of agricultural land surrounding it. The same is the case with the expansion of industry. As well as taking over fertile land, industry has polluted the environment through the disposal of industrial waste, which has affected the quality of agricultural land. Another factor that is no less important is the use of fertilizers and pesticides on the agricultural land itself, which has evidently influenced the quality of the soil. In short, humankind’s cultivation of land, which does not take into consideration the preservation of the environment, has caused damage to the remaining agricultural land, which could disturb ecosystems and, at the same time, threaten the food supplies for human beings.
Concerning the relationship between human’s attitude and the damage of land, Meadows said: “Loss of the agricultural resource base is a consequence of many factors, including poverty and desperation, expansion of human settlements, overgrazing and over cropping, mismanagement, ignorance, and economic rewards for short term production rather than long term stewardship”.10
The above situation is made worse by the problem of erosion. According to Donella Meadows, the Third World has experienced major problems of land degradation due to erosion. It is estimated that 6-7 million hectares of agricultural land have become non-productive due to erosion, while 1.5 million hectares have experienced damage due to other reasons.11 Other causes of damage to land include conversion of agricultural land with the objective of building settlements, new industries and other facilities.
The situation pictured above has caused the development of agriculture not to follow the earth’s natural ecosystem but rather a system of land use which does not care about the principles of sustainable development. As a result, not only has the ecosystem been damaged, the future supply of food is also threatened The government and agricultural experts must work hard to give priority to sustainable development in the field of land utilization that can, on the one hand, support the availability of sufficient food for humankind, and also guarantee the preservation of fertile land to support the earth’s ecosystem.
According to data of the Central Bureau of Statistics in Indonesia, productive land already cultivated in Indonesia totals 17,665 thousand hectares. A large portion of this, or 12,417 thousand hectares is dry land. The remaining 5,248 thousand hectares is wetland or sawah.12 These figures indicate that the expansion of dry land has accelerated and this means that we are facing an ever-increasing risk of erosion and denuding of forestland, because, the increased conversion of dry land to plantations means the opening of new land or the clearing of forests. To this should be added the accompanying impact of forest fires due to the practice of forest clearing through burning. Many forests in Kalimantan and Sumatera have been burnt down.
The land problem in Indonesia consists of several challenges, namely erosion, use of pesticides, and weak regulations concerning the land use system.13 The most serious of these three challenges is that of weak regulations and no clear system, which results in a lot of fertile land being converted for other objectives. As a result, increasing areas of forestland are opened for products which are not the same as those grown on the fertile land, use of which has already converted. Besides that, the conversion of land has also caused other problems, namely pollution because fertile land is generally converted into industrial locations which cause pollution, influencing the quality of the air, water and soil around them. Once again we see an instance of the relationship between environmental damage and the attitude, behavior and responsibility of human beings .The role of man is most dominant in all the problems related to the damage of agricultural land.
Energy
Compared to advanced industrialized countries, the consumption of energy in developing countries, especially Indonesia, is still relatively small. For example, Japanese consumption of energy in 1993 reached a figure of 4,236 SLM (equal to one liter oil), while Indonesia’s energy consumption was only 425 SLM. However, from the viewpoint of annual growth of energy consumption, the growth of energy consumption in Indonesia is very high. The growth of the world’s energy consumption is at this time already 2 percent per year, but in countries in the Asia Pacific the growth is 5 percent per year. Indonesia itself has reached a growth rate of 8 percent per year in energy consumption. The increase in energy consumption in Indonesia has mainly been stimulated by the industry and transportation sectors.14 Not only has this growth in energy consumption been a significant cause of the pollution of the living environment, but it has also become a pushing factor for the exploitation of forests and expansion of land conversion in Indonesia.
The myth that the supply of fossil fuel energy will not be exhausted because there are still many reserves which have not yet been detected is not supported by actual facts. That is why reducing the use of fossil fuels is obligatory. The wasting of fossil fuel is not only increasing the burden of pollutants in the atmosphere, but also endangering the economy which is relying on the use of fossil fuel and would face disaster if fuel energy suddenly ran out. Indonesia serves as an example of the ever-increasing need for energy from oil. Indonesia’s fossil fuel reserves, especially oil, are very limited. According to data of the Directorate General of Electricity and Energy Development, natural oil reserves in Indonesia based on the status on the 1st of January 1996, totaled 9,097.6 billion barrels, compared to the world’s oil reserves of 916.6 billion barrels. Thus, Indonesia’s natural oil reserves account for only 1 percent of the world’s natural oil reserves, while natural gas reserves account for only 2 percent of the world’s natural gas reserves.15
The GBHN underlines the importance of finding alternative energy sources. In the section on mining, the GBHN states that: ‘With the limited reserves and the difficulty of finding new oil and natural gas reserves, the efforts to utilize mining products and processed mining products outside oil and natural gas, particularly coal and geothermal energy must be continuously enhanced so that the dependency on energy from oil and natural gas can be further reduced, while State revenues can be increased’.16 Indeed, alternative energy can still not guarantee the preservation of the living environment. Although coal and natural gas are deemed to be safe, they still have various other impacts like the removal of the local community/local inhabitants or the contamination of air from the burnt waste of coal. However, it is of utmost importance that other alternative energy sources be found, which are more environmentally friendly than energy from fossil fuels. This fact has been emphasized in the GBHN field of energy as follows: “New renewable energy sources like geothermal energy, hydro energy, biomass energy, peat moss energy, solar energy, wind energy, sea waves energy and nuclear energy must be utilized based on the principle of technical and economical feasibility, safe for the community, and socially and culturally accepted by the community, and not causing damage to the environment”.17
Mining
Large-scale mining projects have often influenced a larger living environment over a long period of time. For example, offshore mining can influence a very large area around it. The same is true of mining in the upper course of rivers, which can damage the living environment along the whole river course up to the sea. However, the main problem is related to the exploitation of minerals. Although deposits are significant, they could be completely depleted or shrink to the extent that our grand children might only be able to use recycled metals. As with oil, so with minerals its natural function in the ecosystem of the earth is not yet understood well. It is therefore extremely important that a reserve of minerals be maintained and that the supply is not completely mined. It is possibly already time that the world must retrieve materials that have ben used previously. From the aspect of economizing, the development of the recycling industry is very important.
An example concerning the relation between metal mining and the damage to the living environment which has received a lot of publicity is the case of Freeport in Papua (Irian Jaya), Indonesia. This Freeport case has already been much debated and even brought to a court of justice in Indonesia. There are indications that this mining project has polluted the living environment through three main sources, namely through the material waste of the mine, water waste of the mine and pollution of the air during the operation of the mine. The estimate of the pollution caused by the Freeport mine covers the damage of the mining environment over an area of 5 kilometers for a period of 100 years after the mine is closed; pollution of river water for 20-40 kilometers causing fish and other water biota to die and the contamination of the river deltas and shores which are located 100 kilometers from the location of the mine. The destructive impact on river deltas is estimated to last over a period of 100 years after the mine is closed.18 Apart from the truth of the above estimate, any mining operation not only leaves tracks of pollution, but also depletes the minerals, which are non-renewable resources.
Big mining projects have sometimes also influenced a larger living environment through a long process. For example, offshore mining can influence a very large area around it. The same is true with mining in the upper course of rivers, which can damage the environment along the river banks up to the sea. However, the main problem is related to the exploitation of minerals, which, in spite of significant deposits, will be completely depleted or shrink so that our grand children will only be able to use recycled metals. As it is with oil, the natural function of minerals in the ecosystem of the earth is not yet understood adequately. It is therefore extremely important that mineral reserves must be kept and not completely mined.
Global Warming
Research in Indonesia has estimated that several regions have already suffered material losses resulting from global warming. According to research by a UN team on the coastline near Karawang, Bekasi and Subang some time ago, Indonesia suffered a loss of US$ 55 million in 1990 or around Rp.120 billion as a result of global warming. It is said that the sea surface in those three regions had at that time risen by around 80 cm. The same researchers stated that the increase in the air temperature in Indonesia was recorded to be 0.01°C every year. The increase of the temperature is still considered to be low, but the impact on nature is very significant.19 Bigger losses would be suffered all over Indonesia, particularly in the shore areas where people have businesses, like fish ponds and shrimp ponds, rise and fall sawah cultivation and various other businesses. These losses are related to erosion of the shores and the encroachment of seawater onto coastline areas. Instability of the dry and rainy seasons also impacts crops. For instance, a long dry season over the past few years has caused a drop in agricultural production, especially rice.
Pollution
Liquid and solid waste originate from industries that are using water in their processing system such as water for washing or cooling of machinery and water containing raw materials. The water used in the processing system, water for washing together with water coming out of the raw materials, is usually disposed of as waste and with it a quantity of solid matter and particles which are solvable or precipitate in water. In addition to this, waste water also contains a number of poisonous and dangerous chemicals. Polluted wastewater has identifiable physical characteristics like the colour, feel and smell, while the change of chemical characteristics of water can be identified only through a laboratory test.20
The possibility of mercury pollution and pollution by other chemicals in the Bay of Jakarta has already been investigated and it has been proved that the mercury pollution in the Bay of Jakarta is already at a level which gives great cause for concern and has possibly already claimed victims. According to research conducted by the National Oceanic Institute together with EPOS (a study group concerning environmental pollution) in 1980, fish and shrimps in the Jakarta waters contained mercury exceeding the safe threshold for consumption. 21 Research conducted by an NGO consisting of medical doctors and called ‘Kelompok 10’ (group of 10) led by Dr. Meizar Syafei, have found indications of the transmission of the Minamata disease to children of fishermen in the region of Pasar Ikan, Bay of Jakarta, who suffer from a strange disease.
These children are believed to have been poisoned by mercury through the fish they have consumed. This fish is thought to contain methyl mercury. These children, who are in general suffering from mental disorders, paralysis, convulsions and poor eyesight are known to have consumed fish every day, as did their mothers during pregnancy. It is believed that these children have been poisoned with mercury by eating such polluted fish. 22
The above instance is deemed sufficient to provide an illustration of the danger of water pollution caused by industry. Industrial waste has already caused danger to all creatures living in the water and also to mankind. Water that is polluted by industrial waste through various poisonous and dangerous substances causes the extinction of sea biota, namely animals living in the sea like shrimp, lobster, fish and shells. Besides being dangerous towards sea animals these substances are also dangerous for sea plants, mainly due to insufficiency of oxygen, the growth of algae and seaweeds called eutrophication.23 The danger of water pollution to human beings happens either at the time such polluted water is consumed, or indirectly through the food chain.
Pesticides
Pesticides are a deadly poison. Pesticides cover many types of chemicals used to fight insects, which disturb plants and also human beings. New chemical compounds which function to kill weeds and also to stimulate the growth of leaves and fruits are also included in the group of pesticides. Pesticides are chemical agents, most often artificial, that kill plants and pests. The general term pesticides also covers insecticides, herbicides and fungicides.24 Pesticides is a generic term referring to all kinds of chemicals used to kill organisms inimical to human purposes. They can be classified by chemical composition, by the kind of organism they aim to destroy (insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides, for examples) or by other characteristics such as persistence or toxicity.25
All types of pesticides are dangerous to human beings and the environment if used in excess of the determined amount. The misuse of pesticides in agriculture has already caused contamination which has affected all living beings. Agriculture all over the world uses more than 2 billion kilograms of pesticides every year, which is equal to 400 grams one pound for every living man, woman and child in the world. Pesticides enter the human body through the food chain. According to WHO, there are around 400,000 cases of pesticide poisoning resulting in 10,000 deaths in the Third World every year.26
Notes
1 The use of concepts in the ecological debate is not easy. We will preferably use them according to common usage in order to a avoid constructing an artificial and thus uneasy language. See chapter 2.
2 Radius Prawiro, Indonesia’s struggle for Economic Development, Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, 1998, 338
3 http://forests.org/articles/reader.asp?linkid=23223
4 http://www.globalforestwatch.org/english/indonesia/forests.htm,
5 Faith Doherty, Illegal Logging in Indonesia, http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/ 2002/timber_mafia/vie.../viewpoints_doherty.ht
6 http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/natres/timber/2003/0305com.htm.
7 GBHN Field of Forestry Economy, b,.94
8 Peter Gardiner and Mayling Gardiner, Pertumbuhan dan Perluasan Kota di Indonesia, Jakarta : Kompas Daily, Tuesday, 7 May 1991
9 See GBHN 1998, Field of Agriculture Economy, no.d, 76.
10 Donella Meadows, D.L. Meadows and J. Rauders, Beyond the Limits: Confronting Global Collapse, Envisioning a Sustainable Future, Post Mills : Chelsea Green Publishing, 1992, 53.
11 Donella Meadows, D.L. Meadows and J. Rauders, Beyond the Limits, 52-54.
12 Central Bureau of Statistics, Statistics during 50 years of Indonesia’s Independence, Jakarta: 1997, 29.
13 Carol Warren & Kylie Elson, Environmental Regulation in Indonesia, Perth: University of Western Australia Press, 1994, 36.
14 Source: Directorate General of Electricity and Energy Development, year 1996.
15 Source : Directorate General of Electricity and Energy Development, year 1996.
16 GBHN Field of Mining Economy, d., 91.
17 GBHN Field of Energy Economy, c., 93.
18 Paper: ‘Environmental Impacts of Freeport Grasberg Copper Mine in West Papua’ , Delft: Study Information Center Papua People.
19 See Suara Pembaruan Daily, 10 March 1995.
20 Gintings, Mencegah dan Mengendalikan Pencemaran Industri, Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Harapan, 1992, 44.
21 Bachrun, ‘Ikan Rawan di Teluk Jakarta’, in Tempo Weekly, June 1980, 45; Tresna Sstrawijaya, Pencemaran Lingkungan , Jakarta: Rineka Cipta, 1991, 62.
22 Anonymous, “Pencemaran Teluk Jakarta, Bencana di Ambang Ibukota”. in Kartini Weekly, August 1983, 8-11, 25.
23 Bernard S. Caney (ed.), Encyclopedia Americana, (International Edition, vol 1, 22, 28), New York: 1972, 441.
24 Michael Allaby, Macmillan Dictionary of Environment, London: Macmillan Press, 1983, 373.
25 Sterling Brubaker, To Live on Earth, Baltimore: The John Hopkin, 1972, 108.
26 Muhammad Idris, For a Sane Green Future, Penang : Consumer’s Association of Penang, 1990, 205.
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